TERRY ANATOOMY

trial post for terry's blog

2006-05-04T07:55:00.000-07:00

this is a trial post

movement

2006-04-06T06:13:00.001-07:00

Ovewerview
Muscle:
www.wheelessonline.com/ image4/i1/nght1.jpg
Muscle is attaches to at the skeleton.
1. Involuntary such as the heart
2. Voluntary

Function:

1.Excitability
2.Contractility
3.Extensibility
4.Elasticity.

Muscle move internal and external parts to maintain posture, stabilize joints, and generate heat. Muscle fibers are protected and strengthen buy connective tissue: Endomysium, perimysium, and epimysuim.

Each muscle has one motor nerve, which contains axons of hundreds of motor neurons. Axon enters a muscle it branches into terminals form a neuromuscular junction. When a motor neuron fires, all muscle fibers contract.

Response of a motor unit to an action potential of its motor unit is call muscle twitch. The muscle fibers contract then relax. Every twitch has three phases: latent period, period of contraction, and period of relaxation.
www.mednote.image.com
Sliding Filament Model:

Muscle fibers are stimulated by the nervous system. The cross bridge (the myosin molecule rod like tail terminating into two heads that links the thick and thin filaments together) latch on the myosin binding site on acton in the thin filaments and sliding begins. Each cross bridge attaches and detach several times during contraction to generate tension and propel the thin filaments toward the center of the sacramere. The muscle cells shorten.
Shorten occurs when tension generated by the cross bridge on the thin filaments exceed the forces opposing a shortening. Contraction ends when the cross bridge become inactive and the tension generate declines of the muscle fibers.

www.mentone-educational.com.au/ images/ch_08.gi

www.fig.cox.miami.edu

Action Potential: End of the myelinated axon of a motor neuron, is attached to the muscle fiber. For a skeleton muscle to contract, it must be stimulated by a nerve endings and propagate an electric current. This is called the action potential. Along its sarcolemma, the electric event causes the short rise of calcium ion to trigger the contraction called “excitation contraction coupling”. Skeleton muscle cells are stimulated by a motor neuron of the somatic nervous system. Axon is travel bundle with nerves to the muscle cells. Axon enters muscle forming neuromuscular junction. There is a space called synaptic cleft filled with glycoprotein contain neurotransmitter acetylcholine. When nerve impulse reaches axon end, the calcium channel opens allowing calcium to flow releasing calcium into the synaptic cleft. The calcium is then attached to the receptors on the sarcolemma. The electrical event triggers the sarcolemma. Then the calcium is broken down by acetycholinesterase. At this point, prevents the muscle fiber contraction will stop.

www.image.neuro.com

Bones

Forms from bone, cartilage, and other tissue
Form internal skeleton.
Defines shape and form
Skeleton contain cartilages and fibrous membranes

Structure:

1. Skeleton Cartilage:
In early fetal life it is compose of skeleton. Adult skeleton it is composed of cartilage.
Made of variety of cartilage tissue which consists primarily of water. The water of cartilage accounts for resilience ability to spring back to original shape after being compress.
The cartilage contains no nerve or blood vessels.
Surrounded by a layer of dense irregular connective tissue called the perichondruim. The perichonrium acts like a girdle to resist outward expansion when the cartilage is compressed. The perichondruum contains the blood vessels which the nutrients diffuse through the matrix to reach the cartilage cells.

www.brown.edu/Courses/ BI0032/bone/cartil.jpg

2. Hyaline Cartilages:
· Most abundant cartilage
· Provide support with flexibility and resilience.
· Spherical.
· Collagen fibers in their matrix
· Contains:
1. Articular cartilages which cover the ends of most bones at movable joints.
2. Costal Cartilage connects the ribs to sternum
3. Respiratory Cartilages form the skeleton of the larynx and reinforce other respiratory passageway
4. Nasal Cartilage supports the external nose.
webcenter.health.webmd.netscape.com/ NR/rdonly...

3. Elastic Cartilages:
· Looks like hyaline cartilage but they contain more stretchy elastic fibers.
· Able to stand repeated bended.
· Found in two skeletal locations the external ear and the epiglottis (flap when we swallow)

www.talawanda.net/StaffWeb/ HolmanK/classroom/bone
4. Fibrocartilages:
· Highly compressible and great tensile strength.
· Between hyaline and elastic cartilage.
· Consists of chondrocytes with thick collagen fibers.
· Occur in sites that are subjected to heavy pressure and stretch example the knee and the disc between the vertebrae.

Growth of the cartilage:

Two ways:

1. Appositional Growth:
· Grows from the outside.
· Cartilage forming cells that secretes new matrix
2. Interstitial Growth:
· Grow form the inside.
· Divide and secrete new matrix, expanding the cartilage
· During bone growth calcium salts deposit in the matrix causes calcification. Calcification is when calcium salts deposit in the matrix causing to harden.

Classification of bone:

There are 206 names for bones which are divided into two major division of the body:

www.gpc.edu/~jaliff/ spinchar.gif
1. Axial skeleton:
Related to the head, neck, and trunk.
Forms the long axis includes bones of the skull vertebral column and the rib cage.
Protects, supports, carrying other body parts.
2.Appendicular Skeleton:

· Related to the limbs. Consists of the bones of the upper and lower limbs and the girdles (shoulder bone and hip) that attach the limbs to the axial skeleton.
· Helps the body to gets up from place to place.

Bone classification by their shape:

www.image.uoguelph.camiller/skeletonbone
. Long Bones:
· Long than wide.
· Has a shaft with two ends.
· Consist of limb bones.

2. Short bones:
· Roughly cube shaped examples are the wrist and ankles.
· Sesamoid Bones are short bone that form in a tendon varies in size and number. They act to alter the direction of pull of a tendon.
3. Flat bones:
· Thin, flattened, and curved. Examples are the ribs and the sternum
4. Irregular Bones:
· Complicated shape. Some examples are the vertebrae and hip bone.

Functions:

1. Support:
· Provide a framework
· Supports the body and cradles soft organ.
2. Protects:
· Protects the skull, brain, vertebra, the spinal cord, and the rib cage.

www.courses.vcu.edu/.../ synovial%20joint.jpg

3. Movement:
· Skeletal muscles use bones as levers to move body. Helps us to walk, grasp, objects, and breathe.
4. Mineral storage:
· Reservoir for minerals.
· Calcium and phosphate are deposited and withdraw
5. Blood cell formation / Hematopoiesis:
Occurs in the marrow cavities of certain bones.

Bone structure:

Bones are organs
Contain nervous tissues
Contains cartilage, fibrous connective tissues, muscle, and epithelial tissue in their blood vessel.

Three levels:

1. Gross:

a. Bone Markings:

1. Projections (bulges):
Grow outward from the bone surface example head and spine.
They are sites of muscle and ligament.
Help form joints.
2. Depression and openings:
Serve as sites of a muscle example sinuses.
Allow blood vessels and nerves to pass.

b. Bone Texture:

Dense outer layer that looks smooth and solid.
Compact bone: external layer of the bone

Spongy Bone: Internal layer that are filled with yellow or red bone marrow.

c. Structure:
Diaphysis Shaft forms the long axis of the bone. Thick collar that surround the medullary cavity (marrow cavity contains fat (yellow marrow) which is called the yellow bone cavity).
Epiphyses: Bone ends. Compact bone forms the exterior of epiphyses. Interior contains spongy bone.

d. Membrane:
Periosteum: around the bone white double layer membrane. Richly supplied with nerve, fibers, lymphatic vessels,and blood vessels.
Inner layer: Osteoblasts Consists of bone forming cells and Osteoclasts bone destroying cells.

2. Microscopic:

· Osteon / Haversain System: Structural unity of compact bone. A system of interconnecting canal.
· Contains blood vessels and nerve fibers that serve osteon cells.
3. Chemical:
Allows bones to be durable and strong without being brittle. Resisting compression and tension. Two types:
Organic: Consists of osteoblast, osteocytes, osteoclasts, and Osteoid (Unminerialized bone matrix. It is made up of 1/3 of the matrix, ground substance, collagen fibers and proteins. Secreted by the osteoblast.). Contribute to bone structure and flexibility tensile strength.
Inorganic: Hydroxyapatites (mineral salt): Consists of calcium phosphates surrounding collagen fibers in the extra cellular matrix. Hardness which allows resisting compression.

Bone Development:

Ossification/ Osteogenisis: Beginning or the process of bone formation, bone growth. Remodeling and repair.

Eight weeks in embryo development, bone are constructed from fibrous membrane and hyaline cartilage. Bone tissue begins to develop replaces fibrous/cartilage structure. When bone develops from fibrous membrane the process is intramembranous ossification and the bone is called membrane bone. Bone development by replacing hyaline cartilage is called endochondral ossification called cartilage or endochondral bone.

Intramembranous ossification results in formation of cranial bone.
Endochondral Ossification results in all bones from the skeleton below the base of the skull.

Bone Remodeling:
Process which involves bone formation and destruction in response to hormonal and mechanical factors.
Bone Resorption: The removal of osseous tissue. Part of the continuous bone. Remodeling process
Bone Deposit: Occurs when bone is injured or when strength is needed. Diet: Protein, Vit c, d, a, calcium phosphorus magnesium and manganese
Bone Repair:

Fractures: Break of the bone.
· Nondisplaced Fractures: the bone ends retain their normal position. Displaced fracture the bone ends are out of normal alignment.
· Complete Fracture: complete break of the bone. Bone is broken through. Incomplete Fracture the bone is not broken through.
· Linear: Orientation of the bone relative to the axis of the bone. Break is parallel the long axis. Transverse: the break is perpendicular to the bones long axis.
· Open Fracture/ Compound Fracture: Bone ends penetrate the skin. Closed Fracture: the bone does not penetrate the skin/ Simple Fracture.
Treatment:
· Reduction. Realignment of the broken bone ends.
· Closed Reduction: Bone ends are coaxed into a position by the physician’s hands.
· Open Reduction the bone ends are secured together by pins or wired.
· After reduce it is immobilized in a cast or traction to allow healing. 6-8 weeks.
Repair in a simple fracture:
· Hematoma formation: a mass of clotted blood forms art the fracture sight
· Fibrocartilage Formation: Formation of soft granulation tissue. Begin to reconstruct the bone. Fibroblast produce collagen fibers that connect the broken bone ends. Splints the broken bone.
· Bony Callus Formation: New bone begin to forming the fibrocartilage and conver it to a bony callus. This continues until a firm union is formed.
· Bone Remodeling: Begins during bony callus formation and continues for several months. The bony callus is remodled.

Limb:

· Outgrowth of the outer tube
www.gpc.edu/~jaliff/ spinchar.gif
· Bones, joints, muscles, nerves, and vascular supply
Upper limb:
· Consists of 30 bones and is specialized for mobility
· Arm/forearm/hand arm
· Bones, joints, muscles, and nerves to move
· Vascular supply
· Arm: is composed of the humerus which is the sole bone of the hand (long bone).The skeleton of the forearm is two parallel long bones which is composed of the radius and ulna the hand consists of the carpals metacarpals and phalanges.
· Pelvic Girdle which function is weight bearing. It is composed of two hip bones that secure the lower limbs to the axial skeleton. Form bony pelvis. Consists of three fused bones: the ilium (superior portion of the hip bone. Forms a secure joint), ischium (is a curved bar of bone. This is what we sit on.), and the pubis.

www.rejuvenation-science.com/.../ joint-knee.jpg

Lower limb:
· Muscles, Nerves
· Tibia, Fibula, Thigh, leg, and foot specialized for weight bearing and locomotion.
· Thigh: femur only bone in the thigh. Ball shape head articulates with acetabulum.
· Leg: tibia forming the knee and ankle joints and the fibula
· Foot: tarsal, metatarsals and the phalanges. Supported by three arches lateral medial and transverse that distribute body weight to the heel and ball of the foot.
·
Perforating Fibers is where the peristeum is secured to the underlying bone

Endosteum Internal bone surface are covered with a delicate connective tissue membrane.

Diploe: In the flat bone, spongy bone

Tissue in the Bone

Red Marrow Longbone the hematopoietic tisse.spongy bone of the long bone.
Compact bone

Joints (Articulations):
· Sites where two or more bones meet
· Functions: mobility and protective role.
· Weakest part of the skeleton

Classification by their function:

Functional Classification:
Based on amount of movement allowed at the joint.
Synarthroses: immovable joints. Found in axial skeleton.
Amphiarthroses: slightly moveable joints. Found in axial skeleton.
Diarthrosis: freely moveable joints. Predominated in limbs.
Structural Classification:
Focuses on the material binding the bones together whether or not a joint cavity is present.
Contain fibrous (are immoveable), cartilanginous (rigid and slightly moveable), and synovial joints (are freely moveable).

A. Fibrous Joints:
Are immoveable
Bones are joined by fibrous tissue
No joint cavity is present
Amount of movement allowed is depended on length of the connective tissue fibers uniting the bones.
Three types: Sutures, syndesmoses, gomphoses.
Suture:
Seams occur only between the bones of the skull.
Synostoses: Bony junctions.
· Syndesmoses:
1. Bones are connected by ligament, cord, or band of fibrous tissue.
2. Longer than Sutures.
3. Amount of movement depends on length of the connective fibers.
· Gomphoses:
1. Peg in socket fibrous joint
2. Found in teeth
3. Nail or bolt which refers to the way the teeth are embedded in their sockets.
4. Fibrous connective tissue (periodontal ligaments).

Cartilanginous:

Rigid and slightly moveable
Articulating bones which are united by cartilage
Lack joint cavity
Two types: Synchondroses and Symphyses
Synchondrosis:
Junction or a cartilage
Bar or a plate of hyaline cartilage unites the bones at a sychondrosis.
Are Synchondrosis.
Found in the first ribs
Symphyses: Are joints that are design for strength with flexibility. Example is the intervertabral joints.

training.seer.cancer.gov/ module_anatomy/image...

c. Synovial Joints:
· Are freely moveable
· Separated by fluid containing joint cavity which permits freedom of movement.
· Freely moveable diarthroses.
· Joints of the limb fall under this category.
· Five features:
1. Articular Cartilage:
· Smooth glassy articular (hyaline) cartilage covers the opposing bone surfaces
· Thin, spongy cushions absorb compression placed on the joint
· Keeps joint from being crushed
2. Joint (Synovial) Cavity:
· Potential space that contain a small amount of synovial fluid.

Articular Capsule:
· External layer called Fibrous Capsule. This is tough and composes of dense irregular connective tissue. Strengthen the joints so the bones will not be pulled apart.
· Inner layer is called the Synocial Membrane which are composed of loose connective tissue.
· Covers all internal joints surface
Synovial Fluid:
· Small amount of synovial fluid occupies free spaces within the joint capsule.
· Derived by filtration from blood flowing though the capillaries in the synovial membrane.
· Egg white consistency
· Found within the articular cartilage
· Reduces friction between the cartilages.
· Weeping Lubrication: lubricated the fee surfaces of the cartilages and nourishes the cells.
Reinforcing Ligament:
· Thickness part of the Fibrous capsule.
· Do not lie within joint cavity.
Bursae:
Bags of lubrication act as ball bearing. Reduce friction. Flatten fibrous sacs containing thin film of synovial fluid. Found where ligaments, muscle, skin, tendons, or bones rub together.
Tendon Sheath. Elongated bursa that wraps completely around a tendon

Movement: Two Points:

1. Origin: attached to immoveable bone.
2. Insertion is attached to the moveable bone. Movement occurs when muscles contract across the joints and insertion moves toward their origin. Describe in terms relative to lines or axes around which the body part moves and what plane of space along which movement occurs (transverse, frontal, or sagittal plane.
Range of Motion:
1. Nonaxial Movement: slipping movement only
3. Uniaxial Movement: movement in one plane
4. Biaxial: movement in two plane
5. Multiaxial Movement in or around all three planes.

Three types of movements:
1. Gliding:
· Known as translation.
· Simple joint movement.
· Flat bone glides over another without rotation. Example the vertebrae
2. Angular Movement:
· Increase or decrease the angle between two bones.
· Occur in plane of the body
· Include flexion, extension, hyperextension, abduction, adduction, and circumduction.

1. Flexion:
· Bending movement along the sagittal plane.
· Decreases angle of the joints
· Brings bones closer together
· Example head to chest, bend knee

2. Extension:
· Reverse of flexion
· Movement along the sagittal plane that increases the angle between the articulating bones
· Example straighten a flex neck body or elbow
· Hyperextension: bending a part beyond its straight position.
3. Foot:
· Dorsiflexion: the up and down movement of the foot at the angle joint by lifting the foot so that its superior surface approaches the shin.
· Plantar Flexion: Up and down movement of the foot at the angle joint by depressing the foot, pointing the toes.
4. Abduction:
· Movement of a limb away from the midline or median plane of the body along the frontal plane.
· Example: Raising the arm or thigh laterally.
· Spreading fingers apart.
· Be careful of lateral bending of the trunk away from the midline in the frontal plane. This is called lateral flexion not abduction.
5. Adduction: Movement of limb toward the midline
6. Circumduction: Movement of a limb making a cone shape in a circle. Consists of flexion, abduction, extension and adduction.
Rotation:
· Turning of a bone around its own long axis.
· Movement only in the first two cervical vertebrae.
· Example, hip and shoulder joints.
· Toward or away from midline.
Supination: Turning backwards
Pronation: Turning forward

Inversion: Special movement of the foot. The sole of the foot turns medially
Eversion: The sole of the foot faces laterally.
Protraction:
· Nonangular anterior and posterior movements in a transverse plane.
· Moving out.

Retraction: move back to original position.
Elevation: lifting a body part superiorly, ex shoulder shrugs.
Depression: Moving a part inferiorly ex chewing
Opposition: touching thumb to fingers

Synovial Joints falls into six major category:

Plane Joints: Are flat. Allow short gliding or translational movements. No rotation around axis.
Hinge joints: One bone fits into a trough shape surface on another. Resembles of a mechanical hinge. Permit flexion and extension.
Pivot joints: Rounded end of one bone protrudes into a sleeve or rings compose of bone of another.
Condyloid Joints (Ellipsoidal Joints): oval articular surface of one bone fits into a complementary depression in another. Oval. Permit all angular motion flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, circumduction wrist and knuckles.
Saddle Joints: Resemble condyloid joints but allow greater freedom of movement. Both concave and convex areas. Shape like a saddle. Thumbs
Ball and Socket joints: spherical or hemispherical head of one bone articulates with socker of another. Multiaxial universal movement is allowed. Shoulder and hip.
Knee Joint: Largest and complex joints. Allows extension, flexion, and some rotation. Three joints: intermediate lateral and medial joint. Partially enclosed by a capsule
Shoulder Joint:
Hip:
Elbow:
Injuries: Sprain: ligament reinforcing a joint are stretcher or torn, lumbar region ankle knee. Cartilage injuries aerobic overstressed cartilage. Tearing overuse. Dislocation: occurs when bones are forced out of alignment. Accompany by sprain inflammation and joint immobilization.
Bursitis is inflammation of a bursa and usually caused by a blow or friction. Falling on knee. Tendonitis inflammation of tendon sheaths caused by overuse. Arthritis. 100 types damage the joint one is arthritis. Osteoarthritis: chronic arthritis degenerative condition wear and tear. Rheumatoid: 40 50 year olds women more than men tenderness and stiffness of the joint.

ns vert

2006-03-09T09:44:00.000-08:00

Vertebral column
· Formed from 26 irregular individual bones called the vertebrae and two composite bones, the sacrum and the coccyx.
· Spine.
· Axial support of the trunk.
· Skull to the pelvis.
· Surrounds and protects the delicate spinal cord (The bundle of nervous tissue that runs from the brain to lumbar vertebra that provides a pathway to and from the brain.
· Curvature of the vertebra increases the resilience and flexibility of the spine. This allows it to function like a spring.
· Five major division:
1. Cervical: The smallest lightest vertebrae. 7 Vertebrae C1-C7.
2. Thoracic: 12 Vertebra T1-T12
3. Lumbar: 5 Vertebrae L1-L5
4. Sacrum: 5 fused vertebrae
5. Coccyx: 4 fussed vertebrae

I. Intervertebral disc
Shock absorbers.
Allow the spine to flex, bend, and extend.
Discs are thicker in the lumbar and cervical region which enhances flexibility.
Cushion like pad composed of two parts:
Nucleus pulposus:
· Give the disc elasticity and compressibility.
· Pulposus is a strong collar composed of collagen fibers and fibrocartilage.
Annulus Fibrous:
· Limits the expansion of the nucleus pulposus when the spine is compressed.
· It holds together vertebrae and resists tension in the spine.

II. Structure of the vertebra : Vertebral column
· Formed from 26 irregular individual bones called the vertebrae and two composite bones, the sacrum and the coccyx.
· Spine.
· Axial support of the trunk.
· Skull to the pelvis.
· Surrounds and protects the delicate spinal cord (The bundle of nervous tissue that runs from the brain to lumbar vertebra that provides a pathway to and from the brain.
· Curvature of the vertebra increases the resilience and flexibility of the spine. This allows it to function like a spring.

I. Intervertebral disc
Shock absorbers.
Allow the spine to flex, bend, and extend.
Discs are thicker in the lumbar and cervical region which enhances flexibility.
Cushion like pad composed of two parts:
Nucleus pulposus:
· Give the disc elasticity and compressibility.
· Pulposus is a strong collar composed of collagen fibers and fibrocartilage.
Annulus Fibrous:
· Limits the expansion of the nucleus pulposus when the spine is compressed.
· It holds together vertebrae and resists tension in the spine.

Herniated (Prolapsed) Disc (Slip Disc):
Rupture of annulus fibrosis follow by protrusion of the spongy nucleus pulposus. Protrusion presses on the spinal cord or on the spinal nerves causes’ numbness pain. Treated with massage, heat, therapy, pain killer, and/or remove surgically.

II. Structure of the vertebra :

· All vertebras have a universal structure pattern: Centrum (Body), Anteriorly, and Vertebral Arch.
· Vertebral Foramen: Opening that encloses the body and the vertebrae arch.
· Vertebral canal: This is where the spinal cord passes.
· Pedicles: Short bony pillars projecting posteriorly from the vertebra body. This forms the sides of the arch.
· Laminae: Flattened plates that fuse in the median plane. This completes the arc.
· Spinous Process: A median posterior projection arising at the junction of the two laminae.
· Transverse Process: Extends laterally from each side of the vertebral arch. The Spinous and Transverse Process are attachsites for the muscles that move the vertebral column
· Supoerior and Inferior Process: protrude superiorly and inferiorly from the pedicle lamina junctions.
· Intervertebral Foramina: Opening between adjacent vertebras. The spinal nerves issuing from the spinal cord pass through this.

Nervous System

· Master controller communication system of the body.
· Consists of nervous tissue that is highly cellular, densely packed, and tightly intertwine.
· Brain and Spinal Cord nerves.
· Regulates and control body functions.
· Three main functions:

1. Sensory Input: Monitor changes from inside and outside the body through sensory receptors.
2. Integration: Process and interprets sensory input. Decides what is to be done.
3. Motor output: Reaction to the integration by carrying impulses to the necessary areas.

· Two major cells:

1. Supporting Cells: support, insulate and protects neurons
2. Neurons:
- Structural units of the nervous system.
- Nerve Cells
- Specialize in generating and transmitting nerve impulses.
- Transmit electrical impulses and signals over the body.
- High metabolic rate.
- Branching cells.
- In the CNS: located in the bones, skull and vertebral column, called the nuclei. In the CNS, abundant of neurons that are cluster together are called tracts.
- In the PNS: The neurons are called the ganglia. In the PNS, abundant of neurons that are cluster together are called nerves.
- Dendrites: Short, tapered, and have branching extensions. Cluster to the cell body. Have receptive (input) regions. Provide area for receiving signal from other neurons. They convey incoming messages.
- Axon: each neuron has a single axon. Long axon is called a nerve fiber. When impulses reach axon terminals it causes a neurotransmitter ( a chemical that is stored and released by the neurons. The Neurotransmitter binds to the receptors of neurons or the effector’s cells. It stimulates or inhibits the neurons) to be release. The neurotransmitter either inhibits or excite with the axon that is close by.
- Myelin Sheath: Protects and electrically insulates fibers from one another. It increases speed of transmission of nerve impulses. It conducts nerve impulses rapidly. In the PNS, the Myelin Sheath formed by the Schwann Cells.
- Synapse: is a junction that mediates information transferring from one neuron to the next. It allows chemicals to flow of ion between neurons.
-Neurons are link to smaller cells called Neuroglia (glial) Cells

Neuroglia (glial) Cells

- Cells of neural tissues that support, protect, and insulate neurons
- There are six types, 4 in the CNS and 2 in the PNS
- CNS:

1. Astrocytes:

· Shape like sea anemones.
· Most abundant.
· Cling, supporting and bracing to the neurons and anchoring them to their nutrient supply lines.
· Captures glucose from the bloodstream and deliver it to the neurons to form lactic acid.
· Forms synapse formation.
· Controls the chemical environment around the neurons.
· Absorb leaking potassium ions, capturing and releasing neurotransmitter.

2. Microglia:

· Small ovoid cells with thorny processes. These processes touch other neurons which monitoring their health.
· Transform into macrophage. This is due to the immune system denying access to the CNS.

3. Ependymal Cells:

· Squamous to columnar shape.
· Line the central cavity of the brain and spinal cord, where it forms a barrier between the cerebrospinal fluid.
· Circulate the cerebrospinal fluid from brain to spinal cord

4. Oligodendrocytres:

· Fewer processes.
· Line up along the thicker neuron fibers and wrap processes around the fibers producing insulation covering called the myelin sheaths.

- PNS Neuroglia:

1. Satellite Cells:
· Surrounding the neuron cell bodies.
· Unknown function.

2. Schwann Cells:
· Supporting cells for the PNS.
· Surround and form myelin sheaths around the nerve fibers.
· Vital to the peripheral nerve fiber to regenerate nerve fibers.

Classification of Neurons:

· Multipolar: Three or more processes. Most common type in humans. Major neuron type in the CNS.
· Bipolar: Have two processes, axon and dendrite. These are rare. Found in sense organs where they act as receptor cells, for example the eye and olfactory.
· Unipolar: Has a single short process form T like branches. Associated with sensory receptor.

Functional Classification: How nerve impulse travels:

· Sensory/Afferent Neurons: Nerves that contain processes of sensory neurons. Transmit impulses from the sensory receptors in the skin toward or into the CNS. They are unipolar. Their cell bodies are located in the sensor ganglia outside the CNS.

· Motor efferent neurons: Nerves that carry impulses leaving the brain and spinal cord to the effectors. Carry impulses away from the CNS to the effectors (organs, gland, or muscles that are capable of being activated by the nerve endings). They are multipolar. Cells bodies are located in the CNS.

· Interneurons ( Association): Nerve cells located between motor and sensory neurons that shuttle signal through CNS pathways where integration occurs. Confined in the CNS. Make up 99% of the neuron in the body. Multipolar.

Two parts to the Nervous System:

PNS:

Portion of the nervous system consisting of nerves and ganglia that lies outside of the brain and spinal cord. Outside of CNS.
Serves as a communication lines that link all parts of the body to the CNS.
Consists of nerves (bundle of Axon)
Spinal Nerves: carry impulses to and from the spinal cord.
Cranial Nerves: Carries impulse to and from the brain.
Two Functions:
A.Sensory (Afferent) Division:

-Nerve that consists of nerve fibers that convey impulses to the CNS.

B.Motor Efferent Division: Transmit impulses away from CNS to organs (muscles, glands). Impulse activates muscle to contract and glands to secrete (effect motor response).

1. Somatic Nervous System:
- Refers to voluntary nervous system. Somatic motor Nerve fibers (axons) conduct impulses from CNS to skeleton muscles.
- Consciously control

2. Automatic NS:
- Refers to Involuntary Nervous System
- Consists of Visceral Motor Nerve Fibers: Regulate activity of smooth muscle, cardiac muscles and glands.
- Can not control
- Two subdivision:
a. Sympathetic: Activates the body to cope with stress. For example: being in danger, being excited and the fight and flight division.
b. Parasympathetic: Automatic nervous system that overseas digestion, elimination, and glandular functions.

2. CNS:

Brain/Spinal Cord
Command center
Interpret Sensory input
Dictates motor responses

· All vertebras have a universal structure pattern: Centrum (Body), Anteriorly, and Vertebral Arch.
· Vertebral Foramen: Opening that encloses the body and the vertebrae arch.
· Vertebral canal: This is where the spinal cord passes.
· Pedicles: Short bony pillars projecting posteriorly from the vertebra body. This forms the sides of the arch.
· Laminae: Flattened plates that fuse in the median plane. This completes the arc.
· Spinous Process: A median posterior projection arising at the junction of the two laminae.
· Transverse Process: Extends laterally from each side of the vertebral arch. The Spinous and Transverse Process are attachsites for the muscles that move the vertebral column
· Supoerior and Inferior Process: protrude superiorly and inferiorly from the pedicle lamina junctions.
· Intervertebral Foramina: Opening between adjacent vertebras. The spinal nerves issuing from the spinal cord pass through this.

Nervous System

· Master controller communication system of the body.
· Consists of nervous tissue that is highly cellular, densely packed, and tightly intertwine.
· Brain and Spinal Cord nerves.
· Regulates and control body functions.
· Three main functions:

1. Sensory Input: Monitor changes from inside and outside the body through sensory receptors.
2. Integration: Process and interprets sensory input. Decides what is to be done.
3. Motor output: Reaction to the integration by carrying impulses to the necessary areas.

· Two major cells:

1. Supporting Cells: support, insulate and protects neurons
2. Neurons:
- Structural units of the nervous system.
- Nerve Cells
- Specialize in generating and transmitting nerve impulses.
- Transmit electrical impulses and signals over the body.
- High metabolic rate.
- Branching cells.
- In the CNS: located in the bones, skull and vertebral column, called the nuclei. In the CNS, abundant of neurons that are cluster together are called tracts.
- In the PNS: The neurons are called the ganglia. In the PNS, abundant of neurons that are cluster together are called nerves.
- Dendrites: Short, tapered, and have branching extensions. Cluster to the cell body. Have receptive (input) regions. Provide area for receiving signal from other neurons. They convey incoming messages.
- Axon: each neuron has a single axon. Long axon is called a nerve fiber. When impulses reach axon terminals it causes a neurotransmitter ( a chemical that is stored and released by the neurons. The Neurotransmitter binds to the receptors of neurons or the effector’s cells. It stimulates or inhibits the neurons) to be release. The neurotransmitter either inhibits or excite with the axon that is close by.
- Myelin Sheath: Protects and electrically insulates fibers from one another. It increases speed of transmission of nerve impulses. It conducts nerve impulses rapidly. In the PNS, the Myelin Sheath formed by the Schwann Cells.
- Synapse: is a junction that mediates information transferring from one neuron to the next. It allows chemicals to flow of ion between neurons.
-Neurons are link to smaller cells called Neuroglia (glial) Cells

Neuroglia (glial) Cells

- Cells of neural tissues that support, protect, and insulate neurons
- There are six types, 4 in the CNS and 2 in the PNS
- CNS:

1. Astrocytes:

· Shape like sea anemones.
· Most abundant.
· Cling, supporting and bracing to the neurons and anchoring them to their nutrient supply lines.
· Captures glucose from the bloodstream and deliver it to the neurons to form lactic acid.
· Forms synapse formation.
· Controls the chemical environment around the neurons.
· Absorb leaking potassium ions, capturing and releasing neurotransmitter.

2. Microglia:

· Small ovoid cells with thorny processes. These processes touch other neurons which monitoring their health.
· Transform into macrophage. This is due to the immune system denying access to the CNS.

3. Ependymal Cells:

· Squamous to columnar shape.
· Line the central cavity of the brain and spinal cord, where it forms a barrier between the cerebrospinal fluid.
· Circulate the cerebrospinal fluid from brain to spinal cord

4. Oligodendrocytres:

· Fewer processes.
· Line up along the thicker neuron fibers and wrap processes around the fibers producing insulation covering called the myelin sheaths.

- PNS Neuroglia:

1. Satellite Cells:
· Surrounding the neuron cell bodies.
· Unknown function.

2. Schwann Cells:
· Supporting cells for the PNS.
· Surround and form myelin sheaths around the nerve fibers.
· Vital to the peripheral nerve fiber to regenerate nerve fibers.

Classification of Neurons:

· Multipolar: Three or more processes. Most common type in humans. Major neuron type in the CNS.
· Bipolar: Have two processes, axon and dendrite. These are rare. Found in sense organs where they act as receptor cells, for example the eye and olfactory.
· Unipolar: Has a single short process form T like branches. Associated with sensory receptor.

Functional Classification: How nerve impulse travels:

· Sensory/Afferent Neurons: Nerves that contain processes of sensory neurons. Transmit impulses from the sensory receptors in the skin toward or into the CNS. They are unipolar. Their cell bodies are located in the sensor ganglia outside the CNS.

· Motor efferent neurons: Nerves that carry impulses leaving the brain and spinal cord to the effectors. Carry impulses away from the CNS to the effectors (organs, gland, or muscles that are capable of being activated by the nerve endings). They are multipolar. Cells bodies are located in the CNS.

· Interneurons ( Association): Nerve cells located between motor and sensory neurons that shuttle signal through CNS pathways where integration occurs. Confined in the CNS. Make up 99% of the neuron in the body. Multipolar.

Two parts to the Nervous System:

PNS:

Portion of the nervous system consisting of nerves and ganglia that lies outside of the brain and spinal cord. Outside of CNS.
Serves as a communication lines that link all parts of the body to the CNS.
Consists of nerves (bundle of Axon)
Spinal Nerves: carry impulses to and from the spinal cord.
Cranial Nerves: Carries impulse to and from the brain.
Two Functions:
A.Sensory (Afferent) Division:

-Nerve that consists of nerve fibers that convey impulses to the CNS.

B.Motor Efferent Division: Transmit impulses away from CNS to organs (muscles, glands). Impulse activates muscle to contract and glands to secrete (effect motor response).

1. Somatic Nervous System:
- Refers to voluntary nervous system. Somatic motor Nerve fibers (axons) conduct impulses from CNS to skeleton muscles.
- Consciously control

2. Automatic NS:
- Refers to Involuntary Nervous System
- Consists of Visceral Motor Nerve Fibers: Regulate activity of smooth muscle, cardiac muscles and glands.
- Can not control
- Two subdivision:
a. Sympathetic: Activates the body to cope with stress. For example: being in danger, being excited and the fight and flight division.
b. Parasympathetic: Automatic nervous system that overseas digestion, elimination, and glandular functions.

2. CNS:

Brain/Spinal Cord
Command center
Interpret Sensory input
Dictates motor responses
References:
Anatomy and Physiology
www.alphaklinik.com/.../ 92/vertebral_disc.jpg (disc)

175 x 343 pixels - 9k - gifhttp://www.dynawell.biz/ (vertebra column)

www.spineuniverse.com/.../ 173/thoracic-BB.jpg (thoracic)

www.probertencyclopaedia.com/ j/(Sacrum.jpg )

http://www.spineuniverse.com/ (nuclues p)

64.226.134.111/Joints_Body/ Trunk/hfig21a.jpg ann pop

www.relaxtheback.com/.../ education/900.228.gif (herniated disc)

www.thebackpage.net/ axial.JPG (foreman)

users.rcn.com/.../ BiologyPages/A/autonomic.gif (nervous system)

media.nasaexplores.com/.../ images/(neuron.gif dendrite)
www.antanitus.com/ images/lores/fig3.gif (astro)

depts.washington.edu (miglia)

missinglink.ucsf.edu (epi cell)

sante-mediresource.sympatico.ca (opi cell)

http://www.udel.edu/ (sat cell)

lpig.doereport.com (swan cell)

www.bionicear.org/images/ imagesoto/multipolar.gif (multi pol)

http://www.psyweb.com/ bi polarhttp://www.psyweb.com/ (uni)